|
|
 540 Jesus' temptation reveals the way in
which the Son of God is Messiah, contrary to the way Satan proposes to him
and the way men wish to attribute to him.<244> This is why Christ vanquished
the Tempter for us : "For we have not a high priest who is unable to
sympathize with our weaknesses, but one who in every respect has
been tested as we are, yet without sinning."<245>
Footnote:
244. Cf. Mt 16:21-23.
245. Heb 4:15.
880 When Christ instituted the Twelve,
"he constituted [them] in the form of a college or permanent assembly, at
the head of which he placed Peter, chosen from among them."<398> Just as "by
the Lord's institution, St. Peter and the rest of the apostles constitute a
single apostolic college, so in like fashion the Roman Pontiff, Peter's
successor, and the bishops, the successors of the apostles, are related with
and united to one another."<399>
881 The Lord made Simon alone, whom he named Peter, the "rock" of his
Church. He gave him the keys of his Church, and instituted him shepherd of
the whole flock.<400> "The office of binding and loosing which was given to
Peter was also assigned to the college of apostles united to its head."<401>
This pastoral office of Peter and the other apostles belongs to the Church's
very foundation and is continued by the bishops under the primacy of the
Pope.
882 The Pope , Bishop of Rome and Peter's successor, "is the perpetual and
visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the
whole company of the faithful."<402> "For the Roman Pontiff, by reason of
his office as Vicar of Christ, and as pastor of the entire Church has full,
supreme and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can
always exercise unhindered."<403>
883 "The college or body of bishops has no authority unless united with the
Roman Pontiff, Peter's successor, as its head." As such, this college has
"supreme and full authority over the universal Church; but this power cannot
be exercised without the agreement of the Roman Pontiff."<404>
884 "The college of bishops exercises power over the
universal Church in a solemn manner in an ecumenical council."<405> But
"there never is an ecumenical council which is not confirmed or at least
recognised as such by Peter's successor."<406>
885 "This college, in so far as it is composed of many members, is the
expression of the variety and universality of the People of God; and of the
unity of the flock of Christ, in so far as it is assembled under one
head."<407>
886 "The individual bishops are the visible source and foundation of unity
in their own particular Churches."<408> As such, they "exercise their
pastoral office over the portion of the People of God assigned to
them,"<409> assisted by priests and deacons. But, as a member of the episcopal college, each bishop shares in the concern for all the
Churches.<410> The bishops exercise this care first "by ruling well their
own Churches as portions of the universal Church," and so contributing "to
the welfare of the whole Mystical Body, which, from another point of view,
is a corporate body of Churches."<411> They extend it especially to the
poor,<412> to those persecuted for the faith, as well as to missionaries who
are working t
Footnote:
398. LG 19; cf. Lk 6:13; Jn 21:15-17.
399. LG 22; cf. CIC, can. 330.
400. Cf. Mt 16:18-19; Jn 21:15-17.
401. LG 22 §2.
402. LG 23.
403. LG 22; cf. CD 2, 9.
404. LG 22; cf. CIC, can. 336.
405. CIC, can. 337 §1.
406. LG 22.
407. LG 22.
408. LG 23.
409. LG 23.
410. Cf. CD 3.
411. LG 23.
412. Cf. Gal 2:10.
1434 The interior penance of the
Christian can be expressed in many and various ways. Scripture and the
Fathers insist above all on three forms, fasting, prayer and almsgiving,<31>
which express conversion in relation to oneself, to God and to others.
Alongside the radical purification brought about by Baptism or martyrdom
they cite as means of obtaining forgiveness of sins: efforts at
reconciliation with one's neighbour, tears of repentance, concern for the
salvation of one's neighbour, the intercession of the saints and the
practice of charity "which covers a multitude of sins."<32>
1435 Conversion is accomplished in daily life by gestures of reconciliation,
concern for the poor, the exercise and defence of justice and right<33> by
the admission of faults to one's brethren, fraternal correction, revision of
life, examination of conscience, spiritual direction, acceptance of
suffering, endurance of persecution for the sake of righteousness. Taking up
one's cross each day and following Jesus is the surest way of penance.<3
Footnote:
31. Cf. Tob 12:8; Mt 6:1-18.
32. 1 Pt 4:8; cf. Jas 5:20.
33. Cf. Am 5:24; Is 1:17.
34. Cf. Lk 9:23.
1438 The seasons and days of penance in
the course of the liturgical year (Lent, and each Friday in memory of the
death of the Lord) are intense moments of the Church's penitential
practice.<36> These times are particularly appropriate for spiritual
exercises, penitential liturgies, pilgrimages as signs of penance, voluntary
self-denial such as fasting and almsgiving, and fraternal sharing
(charitable and missionary works).
Footnote:
36. Cf. SC 109-110; CIC, cann. 1249-1253; CCEO, cann. 880-883.
1694 Incorporated into Christ by
Baptism, Christians are "dead to sin and alive to God in Christ Jesus" and
so participate in the life of the Risen Lord.<8> Following Christ and united
with him,<9> Christians can strive to be "imitators of God as beloved
children, and walk in love"<10> by conforming their thoughts, words and
actions to the "mind... which is yours in Christ Jesus,"<11> and by
following his example.<12>
Footnote:
8. Rom 6:11 and cf. 6:5; cf. Col 2:12.
9. Cf. Jn 15:5.
10. Eph 5:1-2.
11. Phil 2:5.
12. Cf. Jn 13:12-16.
1701 " Christ,... in the very
revelation of the mystery of the Father and of his love, makes man fully
manifest to himself and brings to light his exalted vocation."<2> It is in
Christ, "the image of the invisible God,"<3> that man has been created "in
the image and likeness" of the Creator. It is in Christ, Redeemer and
Saviour, that the divine image, disfigured in man by the first sin, has been
restored to its original beauty and ennobled by the grace of God.<4>
1702 The divine image is present in every man. It shines forth in the
communion of persons, in the likeness of the union of the divine persons
among themselves (cf. chapter two ).
1703 Endowed with "a spiritual and immortal" soul,<5> the human person is
"the only creature on earth that God has willed for its own sake."<6> From
his conception, he is destined for eternal beatitude.
1704 The human person participates in the light and power of the divine
Spirit. By his reason, he is capable of understanding the order of things
established by the Creator. By free will, he is capable of directing himself
toward his true good. He finds his perfection "in seeking and loving what is
true and good."<
Footnote:
2. GS 22.
3. Col 1:15; cf. 2 Cor 4:4.
4. Cf. GS 22.
5. GS 14 § 2.
6. GS 24 § 3.
7. GS 15 § 2.
1706 By his reason, man recognizes the
voice of God which urges him "to do what is good and avoid what is evil."<9>
Everyone is obliged to follow this law, which makes itself heard in
conscience and is fulfilled in the love of God and of neighbour. Living a
moral life bears witness to the dignity of the person.
Footnote:
9. GS 16.
1707 "Man, enticed by the Evil One,
abused his freedom at the very beginning of history."<10> He succumbed to
temptation and did what was evil. He still desires the good, but his nature
bears the wound of original sin. He is now inclined to evil and subject to
error:
Man is divided in himself. As a result, the whole life of men, both
individual and social, shows itself to be a struggle, and a dramatic one,
between good and evil, between light and
darkness.<11>
Footnote:
10. GS 13 § 1.
11. GS 13 § 2.
1708 By his Passion, Christ delivered
us from Satan and from sin. He merited for us the new life in the Holy
Spirit. His grace restores what sin had damaged in us.
1709 He who believes in Christ becomes a son of God. This filial adoption
transforms him by giving him the ability to follow the example of Christ. It
makes him capable of acting rightly and doing good. In union with his Saviour, the disciple attains the perfection of charity which is holiness.
Having matured in grace, the moral life blossoms into eternal life in the
glory of heaven.
1716 The Beatitudes are at the heart of
Jesus' preaching. They take up the promises made to the chosen people since
Abraham. The Beatitudes fulfill the promises by ordering them no longer
merely to the possession of a territory, but to the Kingdom of heaven:
Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted.
Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.
Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness,
for they shall be satisfied.
Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.
Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.
Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God.
Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness' sake,
for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Blessed are you when men revile you and persecute you
and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. Rejoice and
be glad,
for your reward is great in heaven.<12>
Footnote:
12. Mt 5:3-10.
1717 The Beatitudes depict the
countenance of Jesus Christ and portray his charity. They express the
vocation of the faithful associated with the glory of his Passion and
Resurrection; they shed light on the actions and attitudes characteristic of
the Christian life; they are the paradoxical promises that sustain hope in
the midst of tribulations; they proclaim the blessings and rewards already
secured, however dimly, for Christ's disciples; they have begun in the lives
of the Virgin Mary and all the saints.
1718 The Beatitudes respond to the natural desire for
happiness. This desire is of divine origin: God has placed it in the human
heart in order to draw man to the One who alone can fulfill it:
We all want to live happily; in the whole human race there is no one who
does not assent to this proposition, even before it is fully
articulated.<13>
How is it, then, that I seek you, Lord? Since in seeking you, my God, I
seek a happy life, let me seek you so that my soul may live, for my body
draws life from my soul and my soul draws life from you.<14>
God alone satisfies.<15>
1719 The Beatitudes reveal the goal of human existence, the ultimate end of
human acts: God calls us to his own beatitude. This vocation is addressed to
each individual personally, but also to the Church as a whole, the new
people made up of those who have accepted the promise and live from it in
faith.
Footnote:
13. St. Augustine, De moribus eccl. 1, 3, 4: PL 32, 1312.
14. St. Augustine, Conf. 10, 20: PL 32, 791.
15. St. Thomas Aquinas, Expos. in symb. apost. I.
1723 The beatitude we are promised
confronts us with decisive moral choices. It invites us to purify our hearts
of bad instincts and to seek the love of God above all else. It teaches us
that true happiness is not found in riches or well-being, in human fame or
power, or in any human achievement -- however beneficial it may be -- such
as science, technology and art, or indeed in any creature, but in God alone,
the source of every good and of all love:
All bow down before wealth. Wealth is that to which the multitude of men pay
an instinctive homage. They measure happiness by wealth; and by wealth they
measure respectability... It is a homage resulting from a profound faith...
that with wealth he may do all things. Wealth is one idol of the day and
notoriety is a second... Notoriety, or the making of a noise in the world --
it may be called "newspaper fame" -- has come to be considered a great good
in itself, and a ground of veneration.<24>
1724 The Decalogue, the Sermon on the Mount, and the apostolic catechesis
describe for us the paths that lead to the Kingdom of heaven. Sustained by
the grace of the Holy Spirit, we tread them, step by step, by everyday acts.
By the working of the Word of Christ, we slowly bear fruit in the Church to
the glory of God.<25>
Footnote:
24. John Henry Cardinal Newman, "Saintliness the Standard of Christian
Principle", in Discourses to Mixed Congregations (London: Longmans, Green
and Co., 1906) V, 89-90.
25. Cf. the parable of the sower: Mt 13:3-23.
1730 God created man a rational being,
conferring on him the dignity of a person who can initiate and control his
own actions. "God willed that man should be 'left in the hand of his own
counsel,' so that he might of his own accord seek his Creator and freely
attain his full and blessed perfection by cleaving to him."<26>
Man is rational and therefore like God; he is created with free will and is
master over his acts.<27>
1731 Freedom is the power, rooted in reason and will, to act or not to act,
to do this or that, and so to perform deliberate actions on one's own
responsibility. By free will one shapes one's own life. Human freedom is a
force for growth and maturity in truth and goodness; it attains its
perfection when directed toward God, our beatitude.
Footnote:
26. GS 17; Sir 15:14.
27. St. Irenaeus, Adv. haeres. 4, 4, 3: PG 7/1, 983.
1740 Threats to freedom . The exercise
of freedom does not imply a right to say or do everything. It is false to
maintain that man, "the subject of this freedom," is "an individual who is
fully self-sufficient and whose finality is the satisfaction of his own
interests in the enjoyment of earthly goods."<33> Moreover, the economic,
social, political and cultural conditions that are needed for a just
exercise of freedom are too often disregarded or violated. Such situations
of blindness and injustice injure the moral life and involve the strong as
well as the weak in the temptation to sin against charity. By deviating from
the moral law man violates his own freedom, becomes imprisoned within
himself, disrupts neighbourly fellowship, and rebels against divine truth.
1741 Liberation and salvation. By his glorious Cross Christ has won
salvation for all men. He redeemed them from the sin that held them in
bondage. "For freedom Christ has set us free."<34> In him we have communion
with the "truth that makes us free."<35> The Holy Spirit has been given to
us and, as the Apostle teaches, "Where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is
freedom."<36> Already we glory in the "liberty of the children of God."<37>
1742 Freedom and grace . The grace of Christ is not in the slightest way a
rival of our freedom when this freedom accords with the sense of the true
and the good that God has put in the human heart. On the contrary, as
Christian experience attests especially in prayer, the more docile we are to
the promptings of grace, the more we grow in inner freedom and confidence
during trials, such as those we face in the pressures and constraints of the
outer world. By the working of grace the Holy Spirit educates us in
spiritual freedom in order to make us free collaborators in his work in the
Church and in the world:
Almighty and merciful God,
in your goodness take away from us all that is harmful,
so that, made ready both in mind and body,
we may freely accomplish your will.<38>
Footnote:
33. CDF, Instr. Libertatis conscientia 13.
34. Gal 5:1.
35. Cf. Jn 8:32.
36. 2 Cor 3:17.
37. Rom 8:21.
38. Missale Romanum, 32nd Sunday, Opening Prayer: Omnipotens et misericors
Deus, universa nobis adversantia propitiatus exclude, ut, mente et corpore
pariter expediti, quae tua sunt liberis mentibus exsequamur.
1749 Freedom makes man a moral subject.
When he acts deliberately man is, so to speak, the father of his acts .
Human acts, that is, acts that are freely chosen in consequence of a
judgment of conscience, can be morally evaluated. They are either good or
evil.
1750 The morality of human acts depends on:
-- the object chosen;
-- the end in view or the intention;
-- the circumstances of the action.
The object, the intention and the circumstances make up the "sources," or
constitutive elements, of the morality of human acts.
1751 The object chosen is a good toward which the will deliberately directs
itself. It is the matter of a human act. The object chosen morally specifies
the act of the will, insofar as reason recognizes and judges it to be or not
to be in conformity with the true good. Objective norms of morality express
the rational order of good and evil, attested to by conscience.
1752 In contrast to the object, the intention resides in the acting subject.
Because it lies at the voluntary source of an action and determines it by
its end, intention is an element essential to the moral evaluation of an
action. The end is the first goal of the intention and indicates the purpose
pursued in the action. The intention is a movement of the will toward the
end: it is concerned with the goal of the activity. It aims at the good
anticipated from the action undertaken. Intention is not limited to
directing individual actions, but can guide several actions toward one and
the same purpose; it can orient one's whole life toward its ultimate end.
For example, a service done with the end of helping one's neighbour can at
the same time be inspired by the love of God as the ultimate end of all our
actions. One and the same action can also be inspired by several intentions,
such as performing a service in order to obtain a favour or to boast about
it.
1753 A good intention (for example, that of helping one's neighbour) does
not make behaviour that is intrinsically disordered, such as lying and
calumny, good or just. The end does not justify the means. Thus the
condemnation of an innocent person cannot be justified as a legitimate means
of saving the nation. On the other hand, an added bad intention (such as
vainglory) makes an act evil that, in and of itself, can be good (such as
almsgiving).<39>
1754 The circumstances , including the consequences, are secondary elements
of a moral act. They contribute to increasing or diminishing the moral
goodness or evil of human acts (for example, the amount of a theft). They
can also diminish or increase the agent's responsibility (such as acting out
of a fear of death). Circumstances of themselves cannot change the moral
quality of acts themselves; they can make neither good nor right an action
that is in itself evil.
1755 A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, of the end, and
of the circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the
object is good in itself (such as praying and fasting "in order to be seen
by men").
The object of the choice can by itself vitiate an act in its entirety. There
are some concrete acts -- such as fornication -- that it is always wrong to
choose, because choosing them entails a disorder of the will, that is, a
moral evil.
1756 It is therefore an error to judge the morality of
human acts by considering only the intention that inspires them or the
circumstances (environment, social pressure, duress or emergency, etc.)
which supply their context. There are acts which, in and of themselves,
independently of circumstances and intentions, are always gravely illicit by
reason of their object; such as blasphemy and perjury, murder and adultery.
One may not do evil so that good may result from it.
Footnote:
39. Cf. Mt 6:2-4.
1762 The human person is ordered to
beatitude by his deliberate acts: the passions or feelings he experiences
can dispose him to it and contribute to it.
1763 The term "passions" belongs to the Christian patrimony. Feelings or
passions are emotions or movements of the sensitive appetite that incline us
to act or not to act in regard to something felt or imagined to be good or
evil.
1764 The passions are natural components of the human psyche; they form the
passageway and ensure the connection between the life of the senses and the
life of the mind. Our Lord called man's heart the source from which the
passions spring.<40>
1765 There are many passions. The most fundamental passion is love, aroused
by the attraction of the good. Love causes a desire for the absent good and
the hope of obtaining it; this movement finds completion in the pleasure and
joy of the good possessed. The apprehension of evil causes hatred, aversion,
and fear of the impending evil; this movement ends in sadness at some
present evil, or in the anger that resists it.
1766 "To love is to will the good of another."<41> All
other affections have their source in this first movement of the human heart
toward the good. Only the good can be loved.<42> Passions "are evil if love
is evil and good if it is good."<43>
1767 In themselves passions are neither good nor evil. They are morally
qualified only to the extent that they effectively engage reason and will.
Passions are said to be voluntary, "either because they are commanded by the
will or because the will does not place obstacles in their way."<44> It
belongs to the perfection of the moral or human good that the passions be
governed by reason.<45>
1768 Strong feelings are not decisive for the morality or the holiness of
persons; they are simply the inexhaustible reservoir of images and
affections in which the moral life is expressed. Passions are morally good
when they contribute to a good action, evil in the opposite case. The
upright will orders the movements of the senses it appropriates to the good
and to beatitude; an evil will succumbs to disordered passions and
exacerbates them. Emotions and feelings can be taken up into the virtues ,
or perverted by the vices .
1769 In the Christian life, the Holy Spirit himself accomplishes his work by
mobilizing the whole being, with all its sorrows, fears and sadness, as is
visible in the Lord's agony and passion. In Christ human feelings are able
to reach their consummation in charity and divine beatitude.
1770 Moral perfection consists in man's being moved to the good not by his
will alone, but also by his sensitive appetite, as in the words of the
psalm: "My heart and flesh sing for joy to the living God."<46>
Footnote:
40. Cf. Mk 7:21.
41. St. Thomas Aquinas, STh I-II, 26, 4, corp.art.
42. Cf. St. Augustine, De Trin., 8, 3, 4: PL 42, 949-950.
43. St. Augustine, De civ. Dei 14, 7, 2: PL 41, 410.
44. St. Thomas Aquinas, STh I-II, 24, 1 corp. art.
45. Cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, STh I-II, 24, 3.
46. Ps 84:2.
1776 "Deep within his conscience man
discovers a law which he has not laid upon himself but which he must obey.
Its voice, ever calling him to love and to do what is good and to avoid
evil, sounds in his heart at the right moment... For man has in his heart a
law inscribed by God... His conscience is man's most secret core and his
sanctuary. There he is alone with God whose voice echoes in his depths."<47>
1777 Moral conscience,<48> present at the heart of the person, enjoins him
at the appropriate moment to do good and to avoid evil. It also judges
particular choices, approving those that are good and denouncing those that
are evil.<49> It bears witness to the authority of truth in reference to the
supreme Good to which the human person is drawn, and it welcomes the
commandments. When he listens to his conscience, the prudent man can hear
God speaking.
1778 Conscience is a judgment of reason whereby the human
person recognizes the moral quality of a concrete act that he is going to
perform, is in the process of performing, or has already completed. In all
he says and does, man is obliged to follow faithfully what he knows to be
just and right. It is by the judgment of his conscience that man perceives
and recognizes the prescriptions of the divine law:
Conscience is a law of the mind; yet [Christians] would not grant that it is
nothing more; I mean that it was not a dictate, nor conveyed the notion of
responsibility, of duty, of a threat
and a promise... [Conscience] is a messenger of him, who, both in nature and
in grace, speaks to us behind a veil, and teaches and rules us by his
representatives. Conscience is the
aboriginal Vicar of Christ.<50>
Footnote:
47. GS 16.
48. Cf. Rom 2:14-16.
49. Cf. Rom 1:32.
50. John Henry Cardinal Newman, "Letter to the Duke of Norfolk," V, in
Certain Difficulties felt by Anglicans in Catholic Teaching II (London:
Longmans Green, 1885), 248.
1791 This ignorance can often be
imputed to personal responsibility. This is the case when a man "takes
little trouble to find out what is true and good, or when conscience is by
degrees almost blinded through the habit of committing sin."<59> In such
cases, the person is culpable for the evil he commits.
Footnote:
59. GS 16.
1782 Man has the right to act in
conscience and in freedom so as personally to make moral decisions. "He must
not be forced to act contrary to his conscience. Nor must he be prevented
from acting according to his conscience, especially in religious
matters."<53>
Footnote:
53. DH 3 § 2.
1783 Conscience must be informed and
moral judgment enlightened. A well-formed conscience is upright and
truthful. It formulates its judgments according to reason, in conformity
with the true good willed by the wisdom of the Creator. The education of
conscience is indispensable for human beings who are subjected to negative
influences and tempted by sin to prefer their own judgment and to reject
authoritative teachings.
1784 The education of the conscience is
a lifelong task. From the earliest years, it awakens the child to the
knowledge and practice of the interior law recognized by conscience. Prudent
education teaches virtue; it prevents or cures fear, selfishness and pride,
resentment arising from guilt, and feelings of complacency, born of human
weakness and faults. The education of the conscience guarantees freedom and
engenders peace of heart.
1785 In the formation of conscience the
Word of God is the light for our path;<54> we must assimilate it in faith
and prayer, and put it into practice. We must also examine our conscience
before the Lord's Cross. We are assisted by the gifts of the Holy Spirit,
aided by the witness or advice of others and guided by the authoritative
teaching of the Church.<55>
Footnote:
54. Cf. Ps 119:105.
55. Cf. DH 14.
1787 Man is sometimes confronted by
situations that make moral judgments less assured and decision difficult.
But he must always seriously seek what is right and good and discern the
will of God expressed in divine law.
1789 Some rules apply in every case:
-- One may never do evil so that good may result from it;
-- the Golden Rule: "Whatever you wish that men would do to you, do so to
them."<56>
-- charity always proceeds by way of respect for one's neighbour and his
conscience: "Thus sinning against your brethren and wounding their
conscience... you sin against Christ."<57> Therefore "it is right not to...
do anything that makes your brother stumble."<58>
Footnote:
56. Mt 7:12; cf. Lk 6:31; Tob 4:15.
57. 1 Cor 8:12.
58. Rom 14:21.
1793 If -- on the contrary -- the
ignorance is invincible, or the moral subject is not responsible for his
erroneous judgment, the evil committed by the person cannot be imputed to
him. It remains no less an evil, a privation, a disorder. One must therefore
work to correct the errors of moral conscience.
1803 "Whatever is true, whatever is
honourable, whatever is just, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever
is gracious, if there is any excellence, if there is anything worthy of
praise, think about these things."<62>
A virtue is an habitual and firm disposition to do the good. It allows the
person not only to perform good acts, but to give the best of himself. The
virtuous person tends toward the good with all his sensory and spiritual
powers; he pursues the good and chooses it in concrete actions.
The goal of a virtuous life is to become like God.<63>
Footnote:
62. Phil 4:8.
63. St. Gregory of Nyssa, De beatitudinibus, 1: PG 44, 1200D.
1804 Human virtues are firm attitudes,
stable dispositions, habitual perfections of intellect and will that govern
our actions, order our passions and guide our conduct according to reason
and faith. They make possible ease, self-mastery and joy in leading a
morally good life. The virtuous man is he who freely practices the good.
The moral virtues are acquired by human effort. They are the fruit and seed
of morally good acts; they dispose all the powers of the human being for
communion with divine love.
1805 Four virtues play a pivotal role
and accordingly are called "cardinal"; all the others are grouped around
them. They are: prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance. "If anyone
loves righteousness, [Wisdom's] labours are virtues; for she teaches
temperance and prudence, justice and courage."<64> These virtues are praised
under other names in many passages of Scripture.
Footnote:
64. Wis 8:7.
1806 Prudence is the virtue that
disposes practical reason to discern our true good in every circumstance and
to choose the right means of achieving it; "the prudent man looks where he
is going."<65> "Keep sane and sober for your prayers."<66> Prudence is
"right reason in action," writes St. Thomas Aquinas, following
Aristotle.<67> It is not to be confused with timidity or fear, nor with
duplicity or dissimulation. It is called auriga virtutum [the charioteer of
the virtues]; it guides the other virtues by setting rule and measure. It is
prudence that immediately guides the judgement of conscience. The prudent
man determines and directs his conduct in accordance with this judgement.
With the help of this virtue we apply moral principles to particular cases
without error and overcome doubts about the good to achieve and the evil to
avoid.
Footnote:
65. Prov 14:15.
66. 1 Pt 4:7.
67. St. Thomas Aquinas, STh II-II, 47, 2.
1807 Justice is the moral virtue that
consists in the constant and firm will to give their due to God and
neighbour. Justice toward God is called the "virtue of religion." Justice
toward men disposes one to respect the rights of each and to establish in
human relationships the harmony that promotes equity with regard to persons
and to the common good. The just man, often mentioned in the Sacred
Scriptures, is distinguished by habitual right thinking and the uprightness
of his conduct toward his neighbour. "You shall not be partial to the poor
or defer to the great, but in righteousness shall you judge your
neighbour."<68> "Masters, treat your slaves justly and fairly, knowing that
you also have a Master in heaven." <69>
Footnote:
68. Lev 19:15.
69. Col 4:1.
1808 Fortitude is the moral virtue that
ensures firmness in difficulties and constancy in the pursuit of the good.
It strengthens the resolve to resist temptations and to overcome obstacles
in the moral life. The virtue of fortitude enables one to conquer fear, even
fear of death, and to face trials and persecutions. It disposes one even to
renounce and sacrifice his life in defence of a just cause. "The LORD is my
strength and my song."<70> "In the world you have tribulation; but be of
good cheer, I have overcome the world.<71>
Footnote:
70. Ps 118:14.
71. Jn 16:33.
1809 Temperance is the moral virtue
that moderates the attraction of pleasures and provides balance in the use
of created goods. It ensures the will's mastery over instincts and keeps
desires within the limits of what is honourable. The temperate person
directs the sensitive appetites toward what is good, and maintains a healthy
discretion: "Do not follow your inclination and strength, walking according
to the desires of your heart."<72> Temperance is often praised in the Old
Testament: "Do not follow your base desires, but restrain your
appetites."<73> In the New Testament it is called "moderation" or
"sobriety." We ought "to live sober, upright, and godly lives in this
world."<74>
To live well is nothing other than to love God with all one's heart, with
all one's soul and with all one's efforts; from this it comes about that
love is kept whole and uncorrupted (through temperance). No misfortune can
disturb it (and this is fortitude). It obeys only [God] (and this is
justice), and is careful in discerning things, so as not to be surprised by
deceit or trickery (and this is prudence).<75>
Footnote:
72. Sir 5:2; cf. 37:27-31.
73. Sir 18:30.
74. Titus 2:12.
75. St. Augustine, De moribus eccl. 1, 25, 46: PL 32, 1330-1331.
1812 The human virtues are rooted in
the theological virtues, which adapt man's faculties for participation in
the divine nature:<76> for the theological virtues relate directly to God.
They dispose Christians to live in a relationship with the Holy Trinity.
They have the One and Triune God for their origin, motive and object.
1813 The theological virtues are the foundation of Christian moral activity;
they animate it and give it its special character. They inform and give life
to all the moral virtues. They are infused by God into the souls of the
faithful to make them capable of acting as his children and of meriting
eternal life. They are the pledge of the presence and action of the Holy
Spirit in the faculties of the human being. There are three theological
virtues: faith, hope and charity.<77>
Footnote:
76. Cf. 2 Pt 1:4.
77. Cf. 1 Cor 13:13.
1814 Faith is the theological virtue by
which we believe in God and believe all that he has said and revealed to us,
and that Holy Church proposes for our belief, because he is truth itself. By
faith "man freely commits his entire self to God."<78> For this reason the
believer seeks to know and do God's will. "The righteous shall live by
faith." Living faith "work[s] through charity."<79>
Footnote:
78. DV 5.
79. Rom 1:17; Gal 5:6.
1815 The gift of faith remains in one
who has not sinned against it.<80> But "faith apart from works is dead":<81>
when it is deprived of hope and love, faith does not fully unite the
believer to Christ and does not make him a living member of his Body.
Footnote:
80. Cf. Council of Trent (1547): DS 1545.
81. Jas 2:26.
1816 The disciple of Christ must not
only keep the faith and live on it, but also profess it, confidently bear
witness to it and spread it: "All however must be prepared to confess Christ
before men and to follow him along the way of the Cross, amidst the
persecutions which the Church never lacks."<82> Service of and witness to
the faith are necessary for salvation: "So every one who acknowledges me
before men, I also will acknowledge before my Father who is in heaven; but
whoever denies me before men, I also will deny before my Father who is in
heaven.<83>
Footnote:
82. LG 42; cf. DH 14.
83. Mt 10:32-33.
1817 Hope is the theological virtue by
which we desire the kingdom of heaven and eternal life as our happiness,
placing our trust in Christ's promises and relying not on our own strength,
but on the help of the grace of the Holy Spirit. "Let us hold fast the
confession of our hope without wavering, for he who promised is
faithful."<84> "The Holy Spirit... he poured out upon us richly through
Jesus Christ our Saviour, so that we might be justified by his grace and
become heirs in hope of eternal life.<85>
Footnote:
84. Heb 10:23.
85. Titus 3:6-7.
1818 The virtue of hope responds to the
aspiration to happiness which God has placed in the heart of every man; it
takes up the hopes that inspire men's activities and purifies them so as to
order them to the Kingdom of heaven; it keeps man from discouragement; it
sustains him during times of abandonment; it opens up his heart in
expectation of eternal beatitude. Buoyed up by hope, he is preserved from
selfishness and led to the happiness that flows from charity.
1822 Charity is the theological virtue
by which we love God above all things for his own sake, and our neighbour as
ourselves for the love of God.
1823 Jesus makes charity the new
commandment .<96> By loving his own "to the end,"<97> he makes manifest the
Father's love which he receives. By loving one another, the disciples
imitate the love of Jesus which they themselves receive. Whence Jesus says:
"As the Father has loved me, so have I loved you; abide in my love." And
again: "This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved
you."<98>
1824 Fruit of the Spirit and fullness of the Law, charity keeps the
commandments of God and his Christ: "Abide in my love. If you keep my
commandments, you will abide in my love."<99>
1825 Christ died out of love for us, while we were still "enemies."<100> The
Lord asks us to love as he does, even our enemies , to make ourselves the neighbour of those farthest away, and to love children and the poor as
Christ himself.<101>
The Apostle Paul has given an incomparable depiction of charity: "charity is
patient and kind, charity is not jealous or boastful; it is not arrogant or
rude. Charity does not insist on its
own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrong, but
rejoices in the right. Charity bears all things, believes all things, hopes
all things, endures all things."<102>
1826 "If I... have not charity," says the Apostle, "I am nothing." Whatever
my privilege, service, or even virtue, "if I... have not charity, I gain
nothing."<103> Charity is superior to all the virtues. It is the first of
the theological virtues: "So faith, hope, charity abide, these three. But
the greatest of these is charity ."<104>
1827 The practice of all the virtues is animated and inspired by charity,
which "binds everything together in perfect harmony";<105> it is the form of
the virtues ; it articulates and orders them among themselves; it is the
source and the goal of their Christian practice. Charity upholds and
purifies our human ability to love, and raises it to the supernatural
perfection of divine love.
Footnote:
96. Cf. Jn 13:34.
97. Jn 13:1.
98. Jn 15:9, 12.
99. Jn 15:9-10; cf. Mt 22:40; Rom 13:8-10.
100. Rom 5:10.
101. Cf. Mt 5:44; Lk 10:27-37; Mk 9:37; Mt 25:40, 45.
102. 1 Cor 13:4-7.
103. 1 Cor 13:1-4.
104. 1 Cor 13:13.
105. Col 3:14.
1830 The moral life of Christians is
sustained by the gifts of the Holy Spirit. These are permanent dispositions
which make man docile in following the promptings of the Holy Spirit.
1831 The seven gifts of the Holy Spirit are wisdom, understanding, counsel,
fortitude, knowledge, piety and fear of the Lord. They belong in their
fullness to Christ, Son of David.<109> They complete and perfect the virtues
of those who receive them. They make the faithful docile in readily obeying
divine inspirations.
Let your good spirit lead me on a level path.<110>
For all who are led by the Spirit of God are sons of God... If children,
then heirs, heirs of God and fellow heirs with Christ.<111>
Footnote:
109. Cf. Is 11:1-2.
110. Ps 143:10.
111. Rom 8:14, 17.
1832 The fruits of the Spirit are
perfections that the Holy Spirit forms in us as the first fruits of eternal
glory. The tradition of the Church lists twelve of them: "charity, joy,
peace, patience, kindness, goodness, generosity, gentleness, faithfulness,
modesty, self-control, chastity."<112>
Footnote:
112. Gal 5:22-23 (VULG.).
1849 Sin is an offence against reason,
truth and right conscience; it is failure in genuine love for God and
neighbour caused by a perverse attachment to certain goods. It wounds the
nature of man and injures human solidarity. It has been defined as "an
utterance, a deed or a desire contrary to the eternal law."<121>
1850
Sin is an offence against God: "Against you, you alone, have I
sinned, and done that which is evil in your sight."<122> Sin
sets itself against God's love for us and turns our hearts away
from it. Like the first sin, it is disobedience, a revolt
against God through the will to become "like gods,"<123> knowing
and determining good and evil. Sin is thus "love of oneself even
to contempt of God."<124> In this proud self-exaltation, sin is
diametrically opposed to the obedience of Jesus, <125>
Footnote:
121. St. Augustine, Contra Faustum 22: PL 42, 418; St. Thomas Aquinas, STh
I-II, 71, 6.
122. Ps 51:4.
123. Gen 3:5.
124. St. Augustine, De civ. Dei 14, 28: PL 41, 436.
125. Cf. Phil 2:6-9.
1854 Sins are rightly evaluated
according to their gravity. The distinction between mortal and venial sin,
already evident in Scripture,<129> became part of the tradition of the
Church. It is corroborated by human experience.
Footnote:
129. Cf. 1 Jn 5:16-17.
1855 Mortal sin destroys charity in the
heart of man by a grave violation of God's law; it turns man away from God,
who is his ultimate end and his beatitude, by preferring an inferior good to
him.
Venial sin allows charity to subsist, even though it offends and wounds it.
1857 For a sin to be mortal , three
conditions must together be met: "Mortal sin is sin whose object is grave
matter and which is also committed with full knowledge and deliberate
consent."<131>
1858 Grave matter is specified by the Ten Commandments, corresponding to the
answer of Jesus to the rich young man: "Do not kill, Do not commit adultery,
Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Do not defraud, Honour your father
and your mother."<132> The gravity of sins is more or less great: murder is
graver than theft. One must also take into account who is wronged: violence
against parents is in itself graver than violence against a stranger.
1859 Mortal sin requires full knowledge and complete consent . It
presupposes knowledge of the sinful character of the act, of its opposition
to God's law. It also implies a consent sufficiently deliberate to be a
personal choice. Feigned ignorance and hardness of heart<133> do not
diminish, but rather increase, the voluntary character of a sin.
Footnote:
131. RP 17 § 12.
132. Mk 10:19.
133. Cf. Mk 3:5-6; Lk 16:19-31.
1859 Mortal sin requires full knowledge
and complete consent . It presupposes knowledge of the sinful character of
the act, of its opposition to God's law. It also implies a consent
sufficiently deliberate to be a personal choice. Feigned ignorance and
hardness of heart<133> do not diminish, but rather increase, the voluntary
character of a sin.
1860 Unintentional ignorance can diminish or even remove the imputability of
a grave offence. But no one is deemed to be ignorant of the principles of
the moral law, which are written in the conscience of every man. The
promptings of feelings and passions can also diminish the voluntary and free
character of the offence, as can external pressures or pathological
disorders. Sin committed through malice, by deliberate choice of evil, is
the gravest.
Footnote:
133. Cf. Mk 3:5-6; Lk 16:19-31.
1861 Mortal sin is a radical
possibility of human freedom, as is love itself. It results in the loss of
charity and the privation of sanctifying grace, that is, of the state of
grace. If it is not redeemed by repentance and God's forgiveness, it causes
exclusion from Christ's kingdom and the eternal death of hell, for our
freedom has the power to make choices for ever, with no turning back.
However, although we can judge that an act is in itself a grave offence, we
must entrust judgment of persons to the justice and mercy of God.
1862 One commits venial sin when, in a
less serious matter, he does not observe the standard prescribed by the
moral law, or when he disobeys the moral law in a grave matter, but without
full knowledge or without complete consent.
1863 Venial sin weakens charity; it
manifests a disordered affection for created goods; it impedes the soul's
progress in the exercise of the virtues and the practice of the moral good;
it merits temporal punishment. Deliberate and unrepented venial sin disposes
us little by little to commit mortal sin. However venial sin does not set us
in direct opposition to the will and friendship of God; it does not break
the covenant with God. With God's grace it is humanly reparable. "Venial sin
does not deprive the sinner of sanctifying grace, friendship with God,
charity, and consequently eternal happiness."<134>
While he is in the flesh, man cannot help but have at least some light
sins. But do not despise these sins which we call "light": if you take them
for light when you weigh them, tremble when you count them. A number of
light objects makes a great mass; a number of drops fills a river; a number
of grains makes a heap. What then is our hope? Above all, confession...<135>
Footnote:
134. John Paul II, RP 17 § 9.
135. St. Augustine, In ep. Jo. 1, 6: PL 35, 1982.
1864 "Whoever blasphemes against the
Holy Spirit never has forgiveness, but is guilty of an eternal sin."<136>
There are no limits to the mercy of God, but anyone who deliberately refuses
to accept his mercy by repenting, rejects the forgiveness of his sins and
the salvation offered by the Holy Spirit.<137> Such hardness of heart can
lead to final impenitence and eternal loss.
Footnote:
136. Mk 3:29; cf. Mt 12:32; Lk 12:10.
137. Cf. John Paul II, DeV 46.
1866 Vices can be classified according
to the virtues they oppose, or also be linked to the capital sins which
Christian experience has distinguished, following St. John Cassian and St.
Gregory the Great. They are called "capital" because they engender other
sins, other vices.<138> They are pride, avarice, envy, wrath, lust,
gluttony, and sloth or acedia.
Footnote:
138. Cf. St. Gregory the Great, Moralia in Job, 31, 45: PL 76, 621A.
1867 The catechetical tradition also
recalls that there are "sins that cry to heaven ": the blood of Abel,<139>
the sin of the Sodomites,<140> the cry of the people oppressed in
Egypt,<141> the cry of the foreigner, the widow and the orphan,<142>
injustice to the wage earner. <143>
Footnote:
139. Cf. Gen 4:10.
140. Cf. Gen 18:20; 19:13.
141. Cf. Ex 3:7-10.
142. Cf. Ex 20:20-22.
143. Cf. Dt 24:14-15; Jas 5:4.
1868 Sin is a personal act. Moreover,
we have a responsibility for the sins committed by others when we cooperate
in them :
-- by participating directly and voluntarily in them;
-- by ordering, advising, praising, or approving them;
-- by not disclosing or not hindering them when we have an obligation to do
so;
-- by protecting evil-doers.
1869 Thus sin makes men accomplices of
one another and causes concupiscence, violence and injustice to reign among
them. Sins give rise to social situations and institutions that are contrary
to the divine goodness. "Structures of sin" are the expression and effect of
personal sins. They lead their victims to do evil in their turn. In an
analogous sense, they constitute a "social sin."<144>
Footnote:
144. John Paul II, RP 16.
1972 The New Law is called a law of
love because it makes us act out of the love infused by the Holy Spirit,
rather than from fear; a law of grace , because it confers the strength of
grace to act, by means of faith and the sacraments; a law of freedom ,
because it sets us free from the ritual and juridical observances of the Old
Law, inclines us to act spontaneously by the prompting of charity and,
finally, lets us pass from the condition of a servant who "does not know
what his master is doing" to that of a friend of Christ -- "For all that I
have heard from my Father I have made known to you" -- or even to the status
of son and heir.<31>
Footnote:
31. Jn 15:15; cf. Jas 1:25; 2:12; Gal 4:1-7. 21-31; Rom 8:15.
2041 The precepts of the Church are set
in the context of a moral life bound to and nourished by liturgical life.
The obligatory character of these positive laws decreed by the pastoral
authorities is meant to guarantee to the faithful the indispensable minimum
in the spirit of prayer and moral effort, in the growth in love of God and
neighbour:
2042 The first precept ("You shall
attend Mass on Sundays and holy days of obligation") requires the faithful
to participate in the Eucharistic celebration when the Christian community
gathers together on the day commemorating the Resurrection of the Lord.<82>
The second precept ("You shall confess your sins at least once a year")
ensures preparation for the Eucharist by the reception of the sacrament of
reconciliation, which continues Baptism's work of conversion and
forgiveness.<83>
The third precept ("You shall humbly receive your Creator in Holy Communion
at least during the Easter season") guarantees as a minimum the reception of
the Lord's Body and Blood in connection with the Paschal feasts, the origin
and centre of the Christian liturgy.<84>
Footnote:
82. Cf. CIC, cann. 1246-1248; CCEO, can. 881 § 1, § 2, § 4.
83. Cf. CIC, can. 989; CCEO, can. 719.
84. Cf. CIC, can. 920; CCEO, cann. 708; 881 § 3.
2043 The fourth precept ("You shall
keep holy the holy days of obligation") completes the Sunday observance by
participation in the principal liturgical feasts which honour the mysteries
of the Lord, the Virgin Mary and the saints.<85>
The fifth precept ("You shall observe the prescribed days of fasting and
abstinence") ensures the times of ascesis and penance which prepare us for
the liturgical feasts; they help us acquire mastery over our instincts and
freedom of heart.<86>
The faithful also have the duty of providing for the material needs of the
Church, each according to his abilities.<87>
Footnote:
85. Cf. CIC, can. 1246; CCEO, cann. 881 § 1, § 4; 880 § 3.
86. Cf. CIC, cann. 1249-1251; CCEO, can. 882.
87. Cf. CIC, can. 222.
2055 When someone asks him, "Which
commandment in the Law is the greatest?"<8> Jesus replies: "You shall love
the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all
your mind. This is the greatest and first commandment. And a second is like
it: You shall love your neighbour as yourself. On these two commandments
hang all the Law and the prophets."<9> The Decalogue must be interpreted in
light of this twofold yet single commandment of love, the fullness of the
Law:
The commandments: "You shall not commit adultery, You shall not kill, You
shall not steal, You shall not covet," and any other commandment, are summed
up in this sentence: "You shall love your neighbour as yourself." Love does
no wrong to a neighbour; therefore love is the fulfilling of the law.<10>
Footnote:
8. Mt 22:36.
9. Mt 22:37-40; cf. Dt 6:5; Lev 19:18.
10. Rom 13:9-10.
2177 The Sunday celebration of the
Lord's Day and his Eucharist is at the heart of the Church's life. "Sunday
is the day on which the paschal mystery is celebrated in light of the
apostolic tradition and is to be observed as the foremost holy day of
obligation in the universal Church."<110>
"Also to be observed are the day of the Nativity of Our Lord Jesus Christ,
the Epiphany, the Ascension of Christ, the feast of the Body and Blood of
Christi, the feast of Mary the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her
Assumption, the feast of Saint Joseph, the feast of the Apostles Saints
Peter and Paul, and the feast of All Saints."<111>
Footnote:
110. CIC, can. 1246 § 1.
111. CIC, can. 1246 § 2: "The conference of bishops can abolish certain holy
days of obligation or transfer them to a Sunday with prior approval of the
Apostolic See."
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