(PROSPERO LORENZO LAMBERTINI.)
Son of Marcello Lambertini and Lucretia Bulgarini, b. at Bologna 31 March,
1675; d. 3 May, 1758. His early education was received from tutors. At the age
of thirteen he went to the Collegium Clementianum in Rome where he studied
rhetoric, philosophy, and theology. St. Thomas Aquinas was his favourite author,
but the bent of his own mind was towards historical and legal studies in which
latter he excelled, as well in civil as in ecclesiastical law. In 1694, though
only nineteen, he received the degree of Doctor of Theology and Doctor
Utriusque Juris (canon and civil law). On the death of Innocent XII he was
made consistorial advocate by Clement XI, and shortly afterwards Consultor of
the Holy Office. In 1708 he was appointed Promotor of the Faith; in 1712 canon
theologian at the Vatican and assessor of the Congregation of Rites; in 1713 he
was named domestic prelate; in 1718 secretary of the Congregation of the
Council; and in 1725 titular Bishop of Theodosia. He was made Bishop of Ancona
in 1727 and cardinal 30 April, 1728. He was transferred to the Archbishopric of
Bologna in April, 1731, in succession to Lorenzo Corsini who had become pope as
Clement XII.
Benedict XIV is best known to history as a student and a scholar. Though by
no means a genius, his enormous application coupled with more than ordinary
cleverness of mind made him one of the most erudite men of his time and gave him
the distinction of being perhaps the greatest scholar among the popes. His
character was manysided, and his range of interests large. His devotion to
science and the serious investigation of historical problems did not interfere
with his purely literary studies. "I have been reproached", he once
said, "because of my familiarity with Tasso and Dante
and Ariosto, but they
are a necessity to me in order to give energy to my thought and life to my
style." This devotion to the arts and sciences brought Lambertini
throughout his whole life into close and friendly contact with the most famous
authors and scholars of his time. Montfaucon, whom he knew in Rome, said of him,
"Young as he is, he has two souls: one for science, the other for
society." This last characterization did not interfere with his restless
activity in any of the many important positions which he was called on to fill,
nor did it diminish his marvellous capacity for the most arduous work.
The zeal and energy which Lambertini carried to this office infused new life
into all his subjects. He himself explained his assiduity by saying that he
looked on the episcopate not as an honour, but as an opportunity to do good. His
administration was exemplary: he visited all parts of his diocese, held synods,
incited the people to piety by word and example, and supervised the affairs of
his diocese so thoroughly that nothing needing change or correction escaped him.
His humility and vast learning were a source of inspiration and strength to his
clergy, and his broad firm grasp of public affairs and public questions gave him
a position of unique influence among rulers and people. In his opinion the
foundation of success in episcopal administration was thorough harmony between
bishop and clergy, and this he succeeded in obtaining. Because of his wonderful
gifts and his extraordinary success as Bishop of Ancona, Pope Benedict XIII
wished to transfer him to some position of greater responsibility affording a
wider field for the display of his powers and activity, but he replied in his
usual jocose vein that no change of place could make him other than he was,
cheerful, joyous, and the friend of the pope. When he was transferred to Bologna
in 1731 his energies and activities seemed to redouble. He became all things to
all men and is said to have never allowed anyone to leave his presence
dissatisfied or in anger, and without being strengthened and refreshed by his
wisdom, advice, or admonitions. His efforts were largely directed to the
improvement of clerical education in his diocese. He reformed the programme of
studies in his seminary and drew up a new curriculum in which special stress was
laid on the study of Sacred Scripture and patrology.
When Clement XII died (6 February, 1740) the fame of Lambertini was at its
highest. Through intrigues of various kinds the conclave which commenced on 17
February lasted for six months. It was composed of fiftyfour cardinals of whom
fortysix were Italians, three French, four Spanish, and one German. These were
split into several parties. One was composed of those who had been appointed by
Clement XI, Innocent XIII, and Benedict XIII; another of those appointed by
Clement XII who were known as the new college. The long, tedious session and the
intense heat did not improve the temper of the cardinals; after six months of
fruitless effort and constant intrigue, the election seemed no nearer than in
the beginning. Various expedients were suggested, such as the withdrawal of the
names of the leading candidates and the substitution of others, but without
avail. After several plans had been tried to end the deadlock, Lambertini, whose
name had been proposed as a compromise, addressed the conclave, saying: "If
you wish to elect a saint, choose Gotti; a statesman, Aldobrandini; an honest
man, elect me." These words spoken as much perhaps in jest as in earnest
helped to end the difficulty. Lambertini was chosen and took the name of
Benedict XIV in honour of his friend and patron Benedict XIII. As pope,
Lambertini was no less energetic, brave, and unassuming than before his
election. His great learning placed him in a position to deal successfully with
ecclesiastical situations that needed reformation, and the broad Christian
spirit which animated his dealings with foreign powers removed the pressure and
hostility of even Protestant courts and rulers. He was undoubtedly liberal in
his political dealings, though he never lost sight of the essential interests of
the Church and religion.
PUBLIC POLICY
To go to the extreme limit of concession and conciliation seems to have been
the principle that dominated all Benedict's actions in his negotiations with
governments and rulers, so much so, indeed, that he has not escaped criticism
even from those within the Church as being too prone to settle difficulties by
making concessions or compromises. However his actions may be judged, whatever
may be thought of his motives, it cannot be denied that he aimed constantly at
peace and that few causes of friction remained after the close of his
administration. Moreover, in estimating the value and effect of his concessions,
it is seen that in nearly every case he strengthened the moral influence of the
papacy even though some rights of patronage or other material interests were
abandoned. Nor was his influence less potent among Protestant than Catholic
rulers; the universal esteem in which he was held throughout the world meant
much in an epoch, the close of which was to witness the disruption of many timehonoured
institutions, social and political as well as religious. An enumeration of his
principal dealings with the heads of states will show that Benedict wisely
abandoned, in most cases, the shadow of temporal authority to maintain the
substance of spiritual supremacy.
The King of Portugal received the right of patronage over all the sees and
abbeys in his kingdom (1740) and was further favoured with the title of Rex
Fidelissimus (1748). In the matter of church revenues and the allotment of
ecclesiastical benefices Spain was also treated very generously. In 1741
permission was granted to tax the income of the clergy, and in 1753 the
Government received the right of nomination to nearly all the Spanish benefices;
in 1754 an agreement was ratified by which the revenues from all the benefices
in Spain and in the American colonies were paid into the government treasury to
carry on the war against the African pirates. The King of Sardinia received the
title of Vicar of the Holy See which carried with it the right of nomination to
all the ecclesiastical benefices in his dominions and the income of the
pontifical fiefs in lieu of which a yearly indemnity of one thousand ducats was
to be paid. Through the mediation of the pope a tribunal was established in
Naples consisting of an equal number of clerical and lay members presided over
by an ecclesiastic, which formed the final court for the trial of ecclesiastical
cases. As mediator between the Kinghts of Malta and the King of Naples the pope
brought a long standing controversy to a happy termination. By the Encyclical
"Ex omnibus christiani orbis" (16 October, 1756), the bitter
controversy regarding the question of admitting to the sacraments persons who
would not accept the Bull "Unigenitus" was brought to a close. While
insisting on the authority of the "Unigenitus" and pointing out that
it was the duty of all the faithful to accept it with veneration, the pope
decrees that only those persons should be excluded from the sacraments whose
opposition to the pontifical constitution was public and notorious, and who
therefore should be regarded as public enemies. The title of King of Prussia,
taken in 1701 by the Elector of Brandenburg, was recognized by Benedict against
the vigorous opposition of many members of the Curia. He was referred to as the sage
par excellence by Maria Theresa, and received many encomiums from the sultan
to whom he playfully referred in his writings as the "Good Turk". At
the close of his pontificate the only question of importance in the foreign
relations of the Holy See which had not been successfully settled was that
concerning the Patriarchate of Aquileia over which the Republic of Venice and
the emperor claimed control. Benedict decided that the rights of the
patriarchate should be divided between the Archbishopric of Görz, in Austria,
and that of Udine in the Venetian States. This decision was regarded as unjust
by Venice, which in retaliation decreed that no Bull, Brief, or communication of
the Holy See should be promulgated within the jurisdiction of the Republic
without the supervision and approval of the Government.
TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL RULER
As temporal sovereign Benedict governed the States of the Church with wisdom
and moderation and introduced many reforms for the purpose of diminishing abuses
and promoting the happiness and prosperity of the people. With a view to
replenishing the treasury which had been exhausted by the extravagance of some
of his predecessors, especially that of Benedict XIII under the influence of
Cardinal Coscia, and because of the enormous outlay for public buildings under
Clement XII, he made no promotions to the Sacred College for four years.
Measures were set on foot to reform the nobility, a new regional division of the
city was introduced for the purpose of greater administrative efficiency,
agriculture was fostered and encouraged by the introduction of new and improved
methods, commerce was promoted, and luxury restrained, while the practice of usury,
against which he published the Encyclical Vix
Pervenit (1745), was almost entirely suppressed. Benedict abandoned none
of the claims of his predecessors, but the liberal use of his powers had no
other aim than the promotion of the arts of peace and industry. How serious the
problem was is best seen from his own words: "The pope orders, the
cardinals do not obey, and the people do as they please."
In purely spiritual and religious matters the influence of Benedict left a
lasting impress on the entire Church and its administration. His Bulls and
Encyclicals, which have played such an important part in defining and clarifying
obscure and difficult points of ecclesiastical law, were learned treatises full
of wisdom and scholarship. The vexed question of mixed marriages, unions between
Catholics and Protestants, demanded settlement in consequence of the increasing
frequency with which they occurred. Much of the bitterness of the Reformation
time had passed away and Protestants sought to have their marriages with
Catholics solemnized with ceremonies equal to those when both parties were
Catholics. Though the doctrine prevailed in Rome that the contracting parties
were the real ministers of the Sacrament of Matrimony, no general unanimity
prevailed among theologians on this point. Without derogating in the least from
this theory, Benedict in reply to the questions from bishops in many places,
especially in Holland and Poland, decreed by the Bull "Magnæ nobis
admirationis" (29 June, 1748) that mixed marriages were allowable only
under certain welldefined conditions, the principal of which was that children
born of those marriages should be brought up in the Catholic Faith, but that
such marriages while tolerated, should never be performed with the ceremonies
that imply formal ecclesiastical approval.
RELATIONS WITH EASTERN CHURCHES
Under the skilful hand of Benedict a formal union was consummated with some
of the Eastern Churches. The frequent attempts of the Greek Melchite Patriarchs
of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem to obtain recognition from the Holy See
did not for a long time result in any definite union, because of dissatisfaction
on the part of the popes with the formulation of the Oriental creeds. In 1744,
Benedict XIV sent the pallium to Seraphin Tanas whom he acknowledged as
Patriarch of the Greek Melchites of Antioch. The conflicts in the Maronite
Church, after the deposition of Jacob II, which seriously threatened its unity
were settled in a national council (1736), the decrees of which were approved by
Benedict. On 18 March, 1751, he renewed the prohibitions of Clement XII against
the Freemasons, and though very few governments regarded the suppression of this
society as demanding decisive action on their part, laws were at once passed by
Spain and Naples, and in 1757 by Milan. The controversy in regard to Chinese and
Malabar customs, or the system of accommodation to heathenism which some
missionaries had permitted their converts to practice, and by which it was said
that pagan ideas and pagan practices had been grafted on Christianity, was
terminated by Benedict XIV who issued two Bulls on the subject, and required the
missionaries to take an oath that such abuses would not be tolerated in the
future. The Bull "Ex quo singulari", in regard to the abuses in China,
was published 11 July, 1742; that in regard to Malabar, "Omnium
sollicitudinum", 12 September, 1744. (See CHINA,
INDIA.) Because of the
manner in which church festivals had been multiplied, Benedict strove to
diminish them. This he did in Spain in 1742, in Sicily and Tuscany in 1748, and
later in Sardinia, Austria, and the Papal States. Such a move met with much
opposition from many cardinals. Benedict silenced their reproaches by saying
that fewer feasts observed in a more Christian manner would contribute more to
the glory of religion.
LITURGICAL REFORMS
In liturgical matters Benedict XIV was extremely conservative. He viewed with
grief the profound changes which had been introduced into the Roman Calendar
since the time of Pius V. The increase in the number of Feasts of Saints and the
multiplication of offices with the rank of Duplex had superseded the old
ferial and dominical offices, and throughout his entire pontificate he set
himself determinedly against the introduction of any new offices in the
Breviary, a policy which he adhered to so strictly that the only change it
underwent during his administration was that Leo the Great received the title of
Doctor. So profoundly impressed was he with the necessity of a thorough revision
of the Breviary which would eliminate those portions with which the critical
sense of the eighteenth century found fault that he commissioned the Jesuit,
Fabio Danzetto, to prepare a report on the subject. This report in four volumes
of notes was of such a sweeping character that it is said to have caused
Benedict to desist from his project. The plan of reforming the Roman Martyrology
was, however, carried to a successful issue, and a new edition was published by
his authority in Rome in 1748. The same is true of the "Cæremoniale
Episcoporum", which Benedict XIII undertook to reform and which Benedict
XIV published (1752) in the now usual form. The classical work of Benedict on
liturgical matters is his "De Servorum Dei Beatificatione et de Beatorum
Canonizatione" which still regulates the process of beatification and
canonization. Other important liturgical writings of Benedict deal with the
sacrifice of the Mass and the feasts of Our Lord, the Blessed Virgin, and some
saints. Besides these he published numerous works on the rites of the Greeks and
Orientals; Bulls and Briefs on the celebration of the octave of the Holy
Apostles, against the use of superstitious images, on the blessing of the
pallium, against profane music in churches, on the golden rose, etc.
In order that the clergy should not be deficient in ecclesiastical and
historical science, and that they might not lack opportunity to profit by the
intellectual progress of the period, he founded at Rome four academies for the
study of Roman antiquities, Christian antiquities, the history of the Church and
the councils, and the history of canon law and liturgy. He also established a
Christian museum, and commissioned Joseph Assemani to prepare a catalogue of the
manuscripts in the Vatican Library, which he enriched by the purchase of the
Ottobonian Library containing 3,300 MSS. of unique value and importance. He
founded chairs of chemistry and mathematics in the Roman university known as the
Sapienza, and many others for painting, sculpture, etc., at other schools. Over
all these foundations he exercised the closest supervision; he also found time
to carry out many schemes for the building and adornment of churches in Rome.
The fact that Benedict never raised a Jesuit to the cardinalate is attributed to
his hostility to the Society; on the other hand, it must be noted that it was to
a Jesuit, Emmanuel Azevedo, that he committed the complete edition of his works
(1747-51). He had been long urged by his friends Cardinals Passionei and
Archinto to order a thorough reformation of that body, but it was not until the
last year of his life that any decisive action was taken. On 1 April, 1758, he
issued a Brief by which Cardinal Saldanha was commissioned to inspect all the
colleges and houses of the Society in Portugal, and to undertake a reform of the
same, but this authority was withdrawn by his successor, Clement XIII.
Benedict XIV sought recreation in the society of learned men and artists,
among whom he shone as a wit and a scholar. Gay, lively, and talkative, his
conversation at times amazed, if it did not shock, the staid sensibilities of
some of the dignified courtiers who came in contact with him. Mild and gracious
in his demeanour to all who approached him, the pope was at times lacking
neither in energy nor spirit. On one occasion a violent scene took place in
which the pope expressed in a most decided manner his disapproval of the tactics
of the French court. Choiseul, the French ambassador, called at the Vatican to
request that the appointment of Cardinal Archinto to succeed Cardinal Valenti as
Secretary of State be deferred until after some matters in which the French king
was interested were decided. Choiseul himself gives an account of this scene
(Letters, p. 169), without, however, relating all the details. The conversation
was more lively than Choiseul reported, and from the "Mémoires" of
the Baron de Besonval (p. 106) we learn that when the pope had grown tired of
the importunities of Choiseul he seized him by the arm and pushing him into his
own seat said: "Be pope yourself" (Fa el Papa). Choiseul
replied: "No, Holy Father, let us each do his part. You continue to be pope
and I shall be ambassador." This brusqueness, however, was not usual with
Benedict. He could be gay as well as serious. The Abbate Galiani once presented
him with a collection of minerals saying: Dic ut lapides isti panes fiant
(Command that these stones be made bread), and the hint was not lost. The
miracle requested was performed and the abbé received a pension.
To his subjects Benedict was an idol. If they complained at times that he
wrote too much and governed them too little, they all agreed that he spoke well
and wittily, and his jokes and bon mots were the delight of Rome. Cares of
state, after his elevation to the pontificate prevented him from devoting
himself as much as he would have wished to his studies of former days; but he
never lacked intellectual stimulus. He surrounded himself with such men as
Quirini, Garampi, Borgia, Muratori, and carried on an active correspondence with
scholars of many shades of opinion. His intellectual preeminence was not only
a source of pride to Catholics, but formed a strong bond with many not of the
Faith. Voltaire dedicated to him his "Mahomet" with the words:
"Au chef de la véritable religion un écrit contre le fondateur d'une
religion fausse et barbare". On another occasion he composed for a portrait
of the pope the following distich:
Lambertinus hic est, Romæ decus, et pater orbis
Qui mundum scriptis docuit, virtutibus ornat.
(This is Lambertini, the pride of Rome, the father of the world,
who teaches that world by his writings and honours by his virtues.)
The distich caused discussion regarding the quantity of "hic", but the
pope defended the prosody of Voltaire who confirmed his opinion by a quotation
from Virgil which he said ought to be the epitaph of Benedict.
Great as a man, a scholar, an administrator, and a priest, Benedict's claim
to immortality rests principally on his admirable ecclesiastical writings. The
most important of them, besides those already mentioned, are: "Institutiones
Ecclesiasticæ", written in Italian, but translated into Latin by P.
Ildephonsus a S. Carolo; it is a collection of 107 documents, principally
pastoral letters, letters to bishops and others, independent treatises,
instructions, etc., all of which are really scientific dissertations on subjects
connected with church law or the care of souls; the classical work "De
Synodo Dioecesanâ", published after his elevation to the papacy, an
adaptation to diocesan administration of the general ecclesiastical law; this
book is called by Schulte, because of its influence, one of the most important,
if not the most important, modern work in canon law; "Casus Conscientiæ de
mandato Prosp. Lambertini Archiep. Bonon propositi et resoluti", valuable
for the lawyer as well as the confessor; "Bullarum Benedicti XIV",
which contains the legislation of his pontificate, many of its documents being
scientific treatises. He also compiled a "Thesaurus Resolutionum Sacræ
Congregationis Concilii", the first attempt at a scientific presentation of
the "Praxis" of the Roman Congregations. A complete edition of his
works appeared at Rome (1747-51) in twelve folio volumes, by Emmanuel Azevedo,
S. J., who also translated into Latin the Italian documents. A better and more
complete edition is that of Venice, 1788. The latest and most serviceable (Prato,
1844) is in seventeen volumes. Some letters of Benedict were published by Kraus:
"Briefe Benedicts XIV an den Canonicus Pier Francesco Peggi in Bologna
(1729-1758) nebst Benedicts Diarium des Conclaves von 1740" (2d ed.,
Freiburg, 1888). Cf. Batiffol, "Inventaire des lettres inédites du Pape Bénoit
XIV" (Paris, 1894); R. De Martinis, "Acta Benedicti XIV";
(Naples, 1884, passim). In 1904 Heiner edited three hitherto unpublished
treatises of Benedict XIV on rites, the feasts of the Apostles, and the
Sacraments.
The best account of the writings of Benedict and the sources
for his life are contained in the abovementioned work of KRAUS.
See also GUARNACCHI, Vitæ et res gestæ Romanor.
Pontif. et Card. a Clem. X usque ad Clem XI (Rome, 1857); NOVAES,
Storia de' Sommi Pontefici (Rome, 1822); RANKE, Die
röm. Päpste in den letzten vier Jahrh. (Leipzig, ed. 1900); Vie du Pape
Bened. XIV (Paris, 1783); GRÖNE, PapstGeschichte
(Ratisbon, 1875), II. For a long account of the Curia and the character of the
cardinals in the time of Benedict XIV, see CHOISEUL, Lettres
et Mémoires inédites, publiées par Maurice Boutry (Paris, 1895). On
Benedict as a canonist see SCHULTE, Gesch. der Quellen
und Litt. des can. Rechts (Stuttgart, 1880), III, 503 sqq.
PATRICK J. HEALY
Transcribed by WGKofron
With thanks to St. Mary's Church, Akron, Ohio
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume II
Copyright © 1907 by Robert Appleton Company
Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York
